LEARNING CENTER
LEARNING CENTERCOLLEGE ESSAYS
2. PLANNING AND ORGANIZING YOUR ESSAY
3. DEVELOPING YOUR MAIN POINTS
6. REVISING AND EDITING CHECKLIST
8. WRITING AN ESSAY OF COMPARISON
9. WRITING AN ESSAY OF CLASSIFICATION
10. WRITING AN ESSAY OF DEFINITION
11. WRITING A PROBLEM / SOLUTION ESSAY
12. WRITING AN ESSAY OF EVALUATION
13. WRITING A CAUSE / EFFECT ESSAY
A thesis statement identifies the specific part of a subject that you will write about. Stated in another way, a thesis statement declares your unique perspective, your spin, on the subject. It gives you the necessary focus and direction you develop your essay. At this point, you’re dealing with a working thesis statement – a statement in progress, so to speak. You may find it necessary to revise it once or twice as your thinking evolves. The following information will help you write clear, effective thesis statements.
STATING YOUR CASE
A thesis statement is usually a single sentence that contains two main elements: a manageable subject plus a specific feeling about (or a particular feature of) that subject.
A manageable subject (genetic engineering)
+ a specific feeling (living with uncertainty about its effects)
= an effective thesis statement.
THESIS STATEMENT: The present generation has to live with uncertainty about the effects of genetic engineering.
Examples Thesis Statements
Levis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (subject) is a charming reminder of the imaginary world of children (specific feeling).
Barbed hooks (subject) should be banned from lure fishing to protect undersized fish (specific feeling).
The main categories of weight lifters (subject) are health enthusiasts, toning devotees, athletes, and bodybuilders (particular feature).
Who are these people we call “the homeless” (subject), and what are the reasons for their predicament (particular feature)?
THESIS CHECKLIST
If you can answer yes to each of these questions, then you have written an effective thesis statement:
Does your thesis focus on a specific writing idea?
Is the thesis stated in a clear, direct sentence (or sentences)?
Is the thesis supported by the information you have gathered?
Does the thesis suggest a pattern of development for your essay? (Comparison, cause/effect, and classification are example patterns.
NOTE: In the final form of an essay, the thesis does not have to be stated directly (although it usually is).
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2. PLANNING AND ORGANIZING YOUR ESSAY
Think of your working thesis statement as the active ingredient that initiates the whole planning and organizing process. Without this statement, you’re still in the selecting and searching stage, still trying to identify a specific writing idea. But once you’ve written your thesis statement – a statement in progress, so to speak. You may find it necessary to revise it once or twice as your thinking evolves. The following information will help you write clear, effective thesis statements.
ORGANIZING PATTERNS
Almost all academic essays follow a basic pattern of development. As you will see in the charts below, some of these patterns are specific and others are more general. Knowing how these patterns work will help you plan and organize your essays. (The topic numbers refer to sample essay in the hand-book that are organized according to the different patterns.)
SPECIFIC PATTERNS
Almost all academic essays follow a basic pattern of development. As you will see in the charts below, some of these patterns are specific and others are more general. Knowing how these patterns work will help you plan and organize your essays. (The topic numbers refer to sample essays in the hand-book that are organized to the different patterns.)
SPECIFIC PATTERNS
Types Principles Organizing
Process (How something works) Chronological Order (190-192)
Narrative (How something happened) Chronological Order (158-161)
Description (How something/someone appears) Spatial Order – Location (177-180)
Comparison (How two things are) Whole vs. Whole comparison
Point-by-Point comparison (194-197)
Cause/Effect (How one thing affects something else) Identify Cause/Explore Effects
Identify Effect/Explore Causes (208-210)
Problem/Solution (How a problem can be solved) Study the Problem/Solution(s) (212-215)
Classification (How something can be categorized) Name Categories/Examine Each One (199-202)
Argumentation (How a position or an opinion can be asserted and supported) Assert and Support/Counter the Opposition/Reassert Position (233-237)
GENERAL PATTERNS
Types Principles Organizing
Logical Order
Working Deductively Follow an opening thesis with supporting details in the most compelling order (206, 230-231.)
Working Inductively Provide examples and details leading up to the main idea (thesis).
Question and Answer Ask a question (thesis) and answer it in the body of the essay.
Explanations and Analysis Move back and forth between explanation (or examples) and analysis (264-266, 268-271).
ESTABLISHING A PATTERN DEVELOPMENT
An organizing pattern for your essay may be build into your assignment. For example, you may be asked specifically to develop an argument or to write a process paper. When a pattern is not assigned, one may still evolve quite naturally during your initial thinking and planning. If this doesn’t happed, take a careful look at your thesis statement (and supporting information). An effective thesis will almost always suggest an organizing pattern. However, if your thesis doesn’t provide this “controlling vision,” consider changing it. Notice how the thesis statements below provide directions and shape for the writing that would follow each.
EXAMPLE THESIS
Bigger in Native Son and Alan in Equus are both entering adulthood and have come to realize that they are tragically controlled by work, religion, and the media.
DISCUSSION: The writer of this thesis is preparing to compare two literary characters. Comparisons are patterned in two different ways. Either you discuss one of the subjects completely and then turn to the other subject (whole vs. whole), or you discuss both subjects according to specific criteria (point by point). Since the example thesis establishes three criteria for comparison – work, religion, and the media – the writer will naturally follow the point-by-point pattern of development.
EXAMPLE THESIS
The present generating has to live with uncertainty about the effects of genetic engineering.
DISCUSSION: This thesis suggests that the writer is developing a cause/effect essay. Essays following this pattern usually begin with a cause (development, condition, etc.) followed by an explanation of the causes. To develop the example thesis, the writer will obviously follow the first route, identifying a cause (or condition) before carefully examining the effects.
Bottom line
Remember that you’re looking for a basic frame or structure for your essay. Within that general frame, other patterns may come into play. For example, you may be developing a comparison essay, but within that structure, you may do some describing or classifying. Or you may be developing an argumentative essay, and within that structure, you may decide to place some of your supporting points in an imagined narrative (scenario).
OUTLINING YOUR IDEAS
Once you’ve established a general pattern of development, you’re ready to organize the information (points, supporting details, etc.) that you expect to cover in your essay. It may suffice simply to jot down a brief list of ideas to follow. Then, again, you may find it helpful to organize your ideas in topic or a sentence outline.
TOPIC OUTLINE
An outline is an orderly listing of related ideas. In a topic outline, each new idea is stated as a word or phrase rather than as a complete sentence. Before you start, write your working thesis statement at the top of your paper to keep you focused on the subject of your essay. Do not attempt to outline your opening and closing paragraphs unless specifically asked to do so.
SENTENCE OUTLINE
A sentence outline naturally contains more detail than a topic outline because for longer, more formal writing assignment.
Introduction
I. Genetic engineering is a new biotechnology
A. Scientist can manipulate genes.
B. Genes can be copied and moved to cells in other species.
C. Scientists can recombine genes and clone entire organisms.
II. Genetic engineering affects animal and plant breeding.
A.Past species improvement efforts took decades and proved unpredictable.
B. Now development time is cut dramatically with better results.
C. Animals are potential chemical factories and new animals can be created and patented.
III. Genetic engineering is feared by some.
A.Dangerous organisms could be released.
B. Public confidence in scientists has been undermined.
Conclusion
WRITING THE INITIAL DRAFTS
Write your fist draft as freely as you can, using your outline (or listing) as a general guide. Your goal is not to produce a winning essay the first time through. It can’t be done. A first draft is clearly a work in progress, or, as writer Donald Murray states, “a vision of what might be.” At this point, you simply want to get all of your ideas on paper. In most cases, you will then need to develop another early draft (or two) before your essay really begins to take shape.
Remember that most academic essays develop in predictable fashion: The opening paragraph introduces the thesis, the body of the essay supports it, and the closing paragraph reaffirms it. (Check below and on the following three pages if you have questions about developing your essay.)
SHAPING THE OPENING PARAGRAPH
Opening paragraph usually start general and end specific. That is, the first paragraph draws readers into the essay with important ideas related to the subject. The second part states or suggests the thesis and leads readers into the main part of the text. (See the examples on the nest page.)
Introduce the subject with…
• Interesting background information,
• A telling quotation,
• An illustrative story,
• A series of questions, etc.
Introductions to Avoid
• Using obvious or worm-out expressions:
“I would like to tell you about”
“According to the dictionary”
• Using say-nothing sentences:
“Subject A and B are alike/different in many ways.”
“World War II was a colossal war…”
“Uncontrollable forest fires devastate the landscape.”
Inside Information
Some writers pay special attention to the exact wording of their opening paragraph before they draft the rest of their text. It gets their juices flowing for the larger task at hand. Other writers would rather get everything on paper before they pay careful attention to any specific part.
SAMPLE OPENINGS
Review these examples of essay openings. For additional ideas, see the essays in “Forms of Writing” section.
I many ways, our grandparents had a harder life than we have today. Typing letters on clunky manual typewriters, canning their own vegetables, and sharing the telephone with neighbors on “party lines” were a few of the inconveniences they faced that we don’t. However, in one area, at least, we have it harder than our grandparents did. The present generation has to live with uncertainty about the effects of genetic engineering.
DISCUSSION: In this opening, Steven Jones makes an interesting historical reference to introduce his thesis. He begins with a description of “hardships” experienced by his grandparents’ generation and then turns to a more pressing hardship facing the present age.
A new breed of hunter dwells among North America’s hidden waterways. Armed with a $50.00 rod and reel, $60.00 hip waders, and a wide array of lures from glowing gadgets to old-fashioned worms, today’s fisherman has improved his arsenal well beyond the bent nail and old twine Huck Finn used to go jiggling. However, most modern fishermen do still carry one piece of equipment that is outdated: the barbed hook, still added to almost every lure produced commercially. This obsolete mechanism plagues the sport of fishing with the damage that it can cause to young fish stocks. Barbed hooks should be banned from lure fishing to protect undersized fish.
DISCUSSION: This writer David DeHaan, first creates a clear image of the well-equipped modern angler. At a midway point in the paragraph, the transitional word “however” effectively turns the opening toward the specific thesis: that one piece of the angler’s equipment – the barbed hook – is outdated and should be banned.
The Simpsons, starts of the TV show by the same name, are a typical American family, or at least a parody of one. Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie Simpson live in Springfield, U.S.A. Homer, the father, is a boorish, obese oaf who works in a nuclear power plant. Mare is an overprotective, nagging mother with an outrageous blue hairdo. Ten-year-old Bart is an obnoxious, “spiky-haired demon.” Lisa is eight and a prodigy on the tenor saxophone and in class. The infant Maggie never speaks but only sucks on her pacifier.
What is the attraction of this yellow-skinned family who star on a show in which all the characters have pronounced overbites and only our fingers on each hand? I contend that we see a little bit of ourselves in everything they do. The world of Springfield is a parody of our own world, and Americans can’t get enough of it.
DISCUSSION: The writer of this opening, Nathaniel Zylstra, describes his subject – the Simpson family – In the first paragraph. It isn’t until the second paragraph that the focus, or thesis, of the essay is addressed. The writer intends to analyze the popularity of The Simpsons.
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3. DEVELOPING YOUR MAIN POINTS
How do you add dimension and depth to your writing? How do you develop complete and insightful essays? You make sure that you have carefully explored and reflected upon your writing idea. You also make sure that you have gathered plenty of compelling evidence to support your thesis.
It’s in the main part of your essay – in the body – that you develop your thesis. The process usually works in this way: You present each main point (as indicated in your outline), expand upon it with supporting facts or examples, and offer additional analysis or commentary as needed.
ADDITING SUPPORT
The example that follow show different ways to develop main points:
With so much to be said about genetic engineering, why would anyone be leery of it? Some people naturally fear the unknown, and there is much that we still don’t know about how genes work. The greatest fear is that some dangerous organism could escape from a scientist’s laboratory – an airbone AIDS virus, for example – spreading uncontrollably through the human population. People also point to the unplanned spread of pests such as starlings, fire ants, killer bees, or the kudzu vine in the southeastern United states as examples of how genetic experiments, too, could get out of hand…It seems clear that not everyone who possesses knowledge uses it for the good of humanity.
DISCUSSION: Steven Jones’s main point is stated as a question. His examples and closing comment provide answers.
The Red Guard played an important role in the Cultural Revolution, serving as Mao’s frontline troops in the struggle against “class enemies.” They “”raided people’s houses, smashed their antiques, tore up their paintings and works of calligraphy and burned their books” (Chang 284). What is a puzzle to me is how these otherwise nice, normal young people could bring themselves to participate in such a horrible campaign.
DISCUSSION: To develop her main point, Qian Zhang cites a specific reference in a text and follows with personal commentary.
Waistlines have continued to grow, even in an intense era of fat watching. A 1994 study published in the Journal of the American Association showed tat on-third of adults were overweight between 1988 and 1991. In previous years, those figures held strategy at one-quarter of the population. Despite American’s current fixation on fat, Maureen Pestine, Northwestern campus nutritionist, said sugar may return as the focus of people’s health in the future.
DISCUSSION: In this example, Jenni Engebretsen offers authoritative facts and professional analysis to support her main point.
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Generally speaking, an effective closing adds to the readers’ understanding of an essay. The first part of the closing usually review (or ties together) important point in an essay, reinforces or stresses one particular point, and/or reasserts the thesis. The closing’s final lines may expand the scope of the text by making a connection between the essay and the readers’ experience, or between the essay and life in general.
SAMPLE CLOSINGS
Still, genetic engineering is here, and we must deal with it. It’s a good news/bad news situation. The good news is the genie of the genetic engineering is out of the bottle. It may be able to grant us some of our best engineering is out of the bottle. Our grandparents would be and are amazed at what scientists have been able to accomplish. If they had been asked to choose between hardships they could see and understand, and using new-fangled conveniences that promised unknown side-effects, I woder which they would have chosen.
DISCUSSION: In this closing, Steven Jones first reviews the main points discussed in the essay. The second part brings the essay full circle by calling attention to the opening comments in the text (the hardships experienced by his grandparent’s generation.) Also notice the final reflective comment, which will keep the essay on readers’ minds for some time.
Ultimately, both Alan and Bigger fail to gain real control over the outside forces in their lives. Alan forfeits his interests in life, and Bigger forfeits life itself. They, like so many people, become victims of the world in which they live.
DISCUSSION: In this closing, writer Janes Sebranek summarizes the main points of comparison she made in the body of the text. Her final point (“They, like so many many people, …”) extends the scope of the essay.
Still, it is hard to pin down the exact reason that Simpsons fans love the show so much. I have over 70 of the more than 150 episodes on ape. Yet I cannot say exactly why I watch. I enjoy the social parody, the mocking of popular culture. But I also am attracted to the suppleness of the concept. I don’t have to worry about the show attempting to teach me deep moral lessons, or insulting my intellect. When I watch The Simpsons, I feel that I am being treated like a thoughtful viewer. These reasons keep me and the rest of American laughing.
DISCUSSION: The first sentence in this closing reinforces a central point made in the essay. The riter, Nathaniel Zylstra, then relates hi personal experience with the subject to summarize and reinforce his thesis.
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After you have written one or two early drafts, developing an essay is really the process of working out the kinds in the sense and flow of your ideas. The best way, really the only way, to work things out is to proceed very carefully through a series of revisions – adding, cutting, and rearranging information as needed.
“…there are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I’m greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed.”
- John Kenneth Galbraith
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6. REVISING AND EDITING CHECKLIST
Use the following checklist as a general guide when you revise and edit your essay:
Pace yourself. If possible, set your draft aside for a day or two before you review it. Everything looks much clearer with a fresh set of eyes. Also make sure that other sets of eyes – including your process. (Conferencing is an essential part of the revising process.)
Think globally at first. Look for gabs in the overall development of your work.
Then carefully examine each part. Does the opening paragraph draw readers into the essay and state (or suggest) your thesis? Have you supported each main point with the effective examples and analysis? Does the closing tie up any loose ends and help readers appreciate the significance of your essay?
Lastly, carry out a close editing. Check your writing using one of the lists of stylistic traits in the handbook as you basic guide. To check the flow and rhythm of your sentence, read your essay out loud.
Lastly, carry out c close editing. Check your writing for accuracy (mechanics, usage, etc.) before preparing a final copy of your essay.
On one level, writing an essay is the process of clarifying and fine-tuning your thinking on a subject. On another level, it is the process of informing or persuading your readers. You’ll know that you’ve made enough changes when your essay clearly and accurately reflects your thinking on the subject, and when it answers any questions your readers may have.
TWO SAMPLE ESSAYS
The two sample essays included here are about the same subject, genetic engineering. As you will see, however, the second essay illustrates a higher level of writing proficiency, a level that few student writers can achieve without a great deal of time, effort, and guidance. Depending upon your writing background and experience, one or the other of these pieces will serve well as a model for your own writing. Comprehensive notes precede each model.
ESSAY I: NOTES
OVERVIEW: “The Uncertainty of Genetic Engineering,” starting on the next page, represents a traditional academic essay in terms of approach and structure. This essay follow the thesis/support/summary format:
Paragraph 1: The opening paragraph draws attention to the subject and states the thesis.
Paragraph 2-4: The paragraphs in the body of the essay define the subject and speculate upon its effects.
Paragraph 5:The closing paragraph reaffirms the thesis and ends with a thought-provoking idea.
ASSESSMENT: This essay is consistently focused on a single interesting and timely topic. It sticks to one main pattern of development throughout the essay (the effects of genetic engineering). The body of the essay raises some valid points in terms of the potential effects of the subject. The overall text is coherent and unified, the sentence structure is clear and accurate, and in places, the voice is engaging. The result is an effective piece of college writing.
SUGGESTIONS:How might the essay be improved?
Create a more intriguing title.
Polish the opening, making it a bit more formal.
Include more specific examples.
Delve further into the subject.
Cite more references to respected sources.
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In order for a paragraph to be an effective unit of thought, it must
address a topic,
communicate a specific idea about the topic, and
develop that idea with supporting details.
The specific idea, often stated explicitly in a topic sentence, establishes the focus for readers and suggests where the paragraph will lead. The rest of the paragraph expands the idea through analysis, definition, examples, and support in the form of facts, statistics, details, and quotations. As a paragraph writer, you want readers to understand the idea, accept it, and care about it.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
The topic sentence tells readers what your subject is and what you plan to say about it. Because it forecasts what the paragraph will say, the topic sentence helps you, the writer, decide what to include and exclude from the paragraph. If any words or sentences do not expand on the idea in the topic sentence, they do not belong in the paragraph. To write an effective topic sentence, use formula below:
Formula: A topic sentence = a limited topic + a specific idea
Example: The economic mind-set of the baby-boomer generation [limited topic] is an enigma to survivors of the Great Depression [specific idea].
POSITIONING THE TOPIC SENTENCE
As you develop paragraphs, you may naturally place your topic sentence first, but that isn’t always necessary. You can position your topic sentence anywhere in the paragraph, as long as you have a good reason and can logically lead up to and away from it. When deciding where to put the topic sentence, consider the following:
THE WRITING OCCASION
What type of writing are you doing, and what does that form dictate about paragraph development? Is the piece informal or strictly academic?
THE READER
What would be curious reader find to be clear, interesting, and effective?
THE CONTEXT
How does the entire paragraph fit with those that precede and follow it?
PLACING THETOPIC SENTENCE FISRT
Put the topic sentence first when you want to be absolutely direct – stating the main idea then developing it. With this placement, readers understand the direction of your thinking right from the start, and can see how that thinking relates to the previous paragraph. (The except below, taken from student writer Heather Hamilton’s essay on Scotland, begin with the last sentence of the paragraph that precedes the model.)
… If what you seek is quiet, peace, and a time to reflect, I can think of no better hideaway than Scotland.
However, the paradox of Scotland is that violence had long been the norm in this now-peaceful land. In fact, the country was born, bred, and came of age in war. The Picts, were the first inhabitants, fierce men so named by the Romans became tattoos covered their bodies like paint. The mighty Romans could not conquer them, so the Empire had to erect two huge walls to keep them out. Eventually, both walls fell, and the Romans left. By 844, Picts were united with the Scots, invades from Ireland, under Kenneth MacAlpin, the first king of Scotland. The loosely knit nation of clans then spent nearly the next millennium fighting against the English and each other. But unlike the Irish nationalists, the Scots fell silent after the last uprising was crushed in the eighteenth century.
PLACING THE TOPIC SENTENCE AT THE END
Put the paragraph’s key idea at the end when you want to give details or arguments that build up to it, a strategy particularly useful in persuasive writing. The paragraph below, from student writer Jeff Krosschell’s paper on changes in affirmative action, uses a question to introduce the main idea, but saves the topic sentence for the end.
How, exactly, has the definition of “affirmative action” changed since the concept became an issue in the 1960s? William Bradford Reynolds, former assistant attorney general in the Civil Rights Division, describes this process in “Affirmative Action and Its Negative Repercussions.” When affirmative action started in the sixties, it was meant to help everybody, not just certain ethnic groups. As Reynolds says, it was “originally defined in terms of active recruitment and outreach measures aimed at enhancing employment for all Americans” (38). But in the 70-s this broad definition narrowed. Reynold argues that during that decade, affirmative action turned into a tool for creating racial balance in the workplace. It become more selective about which groups it enhanced employment opportunities for. After several court battles in the ‘80s and the Civil Rights Act of 1991, the definition of affirmative action changed again: it became to be seen as a tool of last resort in cases of persistent discrimination. Thus, through four decades of struggle and social change, affirmative action has shifted from its original meaning and purpose.
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8. WRITING AN ESSAY OF COMPARISON
When you compare two subjects (ideas, events, objects, experiments, etc.), you help your reader understand their differences. The ultimate challenge when writing a comparison is to “make the familiar seem new and the new seem familiar.” Use the guidelines below and the models that follow to help you write balanced and logical comparisons.
SEARCHING AND SELECTING
Selecting The subjects for your writing will depend upon the course in which these guidelines are being used. Keep in mind that the subjects must be related in some important way and be of some interest you and your readers.
Searching If no subjects come readily to mind, review your course notes or your text for ideas. Brainstorm for ideas among a small group of peers. Also try writing freely about your course work, noting potential subjects – ideas, objects, characters, or event’s – as they come to mind.
GENERATING THE TEXT
Collecting Gather ideas and details related to your subject
Assessing Review your collecting to determine how much you are already know about your subjects and how much you need to find out. Continue collecting if necessary.
Focusing State a possible focus for your work; then plan or organize your writing accordingly. (You might, for example, do a point-by-point comparison of the subjects, or you might address each separately, allowing the comparison to evolve more naturally.)
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Write your first draft, working in details and ideas according to your planning and organizing.
Revising Review, revise, and refine your writing before you share it with your readers. (Make sure your comparison has the proper balance.)
EVALUATING
Is the writing effectively organized so readers can follow and understand the similarities and differences between two subjects? Are main points supported by specific detail and examples? Does the writing form a meaningful whole, moving clearly and smoothly from the operating section to the closing thoughts? Will readers appreciate the treatment of the subjects in this essay?
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9. WRITING AN ESSAY OF CLASSIFICATION
When you classify, you generally break a subject down into its most meaningful parts. (Weight lifters come in four basic varieties.) You may also classify a subject by explaining how it fits into a large category or grouping. (Slang is a localized, jazzy level of diction.) When writing an essay of classification, your goal is to help readers better understand the whole (your subject) into the larger scheme of things. Use the guidelines below and the models that follow to help you develop your work.
SEARCHING AND SELECTING
Selecting Focus your subject search on general areas of interest that lend themselves to classification (perhaps music, sports, etc.) Also make sure that you follow any guidelines established by your instructor. Then think of a suitable subject to classify. For example, maybe you’re interested in popular music. If that subject is too broad, narrow it to something more manageable, like Latin music.
Reviewing Think about the different ways a possible subject could be classified. Latin music could be analyzed according to the different types poplar in the United States (salsa, meringue, tango, etc).
GENERATING THE TEXT
Organizing Decide on a classifying focus (such as the example above) that you will use to analyze your subject. Then plot out your essay by dividing or categorizing your subject according to this focus.
Collecting Gather as much information as you need to develop your essay. Adjust your focus as necessary after conducting your research.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing In your opening remarks, establish your focus – how and why you are classing this subject. Then continue your draft by discussing the different categories or groupings that you have plotted out.
Revising Review your essay for clarity and coherence. Make sure that all of your categories are clearly related and equal importance. Revise and refine your work accordingly. Is the focus of the essay meaningful and manageable? Is each category effectively explained or developed? Does the essay move smoothly from one category to the next?
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10. WRITING AN ESSAY OF DEFINITION
In an essay of definition, you clarify a complex concept (inflation), an abstract idea (hope), or a complicated idea (democracy). To develop (and extend) a definition, you can give a dictionary definition, make a comparison, provide a fitting quotation, offer a negative definition (tell what it is not), and so on. The effectiveness of your essay depends upon your ability to understand your subject, to know what really sets it apart from all other members (related ideas) in its class. Use the guidelines below and the models that follow to help you develop your work.
SEARCHING AND SELECTING
Selecting Choose a term or concept that meets the requirements of your assignment. Your subject must be complex enough to require some careful thinking on your part; it should get your readers thoughtfully involved.
Reviewing If no subject comes readily to mind, think about topics in the news, concepts in your course work, and ideas you explore in your journal.
GENERATING THE TEXT
Collecting Explore your own thoughts and feelings about your subject. Then gather information – dictionary definitions, interviews, personal anecdotes, etc. – to include in your essay.
Organizing Determine how you want to present your definitions. You may want to begin with a dictionary definition or a personal anecdote and with a negative definition or the thoughts and feelings of other people. Work with a number of different approaches.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Keep these points in mind when you write first draft: In your opening remarks, identify your subject and help readers appreciate its significance – why it’s important to know more about the subject. As you continue, include enough information (comparisons, examples, etc.) to bring your subject to life.
Revising Review your first draft, paying special attention to the logical flow of ideas in your essay. Revise and refine your work accordingly.
EVALUATING Is the definition clearly presented and effectively developed? Is the content organized and easy to follow? Will readers appreciate the treatment of the subject?
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11. WRITING A PROBLEM / SOLUTION ESSAY
In a problem/solution essay, the writer examines all aspects of a problem (personal, social, political, etc.) and then suggests a reasonable solution, often after explaining why other solutions will not work. The effectiveness of a problem/solution essay depends upon your ability to understand a subject in all of its complexity, and to share that insight with your readers. Use the guidelines below and the models that follow to help to help you develop your work.
Searching Think about issues your peers complain about: required courses, campus safety, the cost of living, etc. Or conduct a brainstorming session, listing 10 problems or concerns of college students. Can you discover a reasonable solution for any of these problems?
Selecting Also consider problems that concern the local, national, or world community. Can you analyze and propose a solution of one of these problems? Do you know of anyone who solved a difficult problem in a unique way? Have you resolved a significant problem in a unique way? Have you resolved a significant problem in your own life or helped to solve someone else’s problem?
GENERATING THE TEXT
Forming After you’ve selected a problem, write it out in a clear statement. Then analyze it thoroughly, exploring the problem’s parts, history, and causes. Weight possible solutions.
Assessing Carefully review your notes. Are you dealing with a manageable problem? Have you collected enough background material to present the problem and propose a solution? Gather additional support as needed.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Write your first draft after analyzing and assessing your subject. Pay special attention to your opening remarks. Think of an anecdote, a statistic, or a detail that you could develop into a provocative or compelling introduction. You want to begin by convincing readers that your subject is significant.
Refining Carefully review your first draft for clarity and logic. Also have one of your peers review your work. Revise and refine accordingly.
EVALUATING
Has a reasonable solution to a real problem been established? Is the writing perceptive, the opening engaging, the conclusion logical? Will readers appreciate the treatment of the subject?
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12. WRITING AN ESSAY OF EVALUATION
In an essay of evaluation, a writer acts like a roving critic, exploring the significance of a particular event, a current trend, an extended project, a recent decision, a new product, and so on. To develop an essay of this type, think in terms of a subject’s value, impact, and significance; its strengths and weaknesses; its place in the scheme of things. Use the guidelines blow and the models that follow to help with your writing.
SEARCHING AND SELECTING
Searching If you have trouble thinking of a subject, write people, places, events, and trends on a piece of paper turned lengthwise. Then list ideas under each heading. Along the way, you may discover a suitable subject.
Reviewing You may also focus your attention on more consumer-oriented subjects. Think of purchases you have made (or are considering). Consider entertainment you enjoy (or dislike).
GENERATING THE TEXT
Recording Once you select a subject, like all the points that you want to evaluate. For example, if your subject is a product, you might evaluate its appearance, durability, manageability, affordability, usefulness, etc. Also explore your own thoughts and feelings about the subject. What does it mean to you? How does it fit into your life?
Assessing Review your notes to see how much, you know about your subject. Consult primary and secondary sources of information as needed.
Focusing Write a focus statement – a sentence (or two) identifying the main idea or feeling you want to address in your evaluation. Then plan and organize your essay accordingly.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Write your first draft, working in main points and supporting details according to your planning and organizing.
Revising Review your first draft, paying special attention to the arrangement and flow of your ideas. Have one of your writing peers react to your work as well. Then revise and refine your work accordingly.
EVALUATING Does the essay indeed evaluate or assess the subject? Does the writing have a clear sense of order and purpose? Will readers appreciate the treatment of the subject?
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13. WRITING A CAUSE / EFFECT ESSAY
A cause/effect essay is based on a writer’s careful examination of a timely issue. When you develop this type of essay, you first task is to identify the most important points related to your subject. Your second task is to make clear cause/effect connections between these points. The effectiveness of your essay depends upon your ability to establish sound, logical relationships between all of your main points. Use the guidelines below and the models that follow to help you develop your work.
SEARCHING AND SELECTING
Reviewing Think about recent experiences, conversations, newscasts, and headlines for possible ideas. A cause/effect essay could focus on an improved or deteriorating situation on your campus or in your own community. It could focus on a recent development in medicine or in science, an exciting discovery, a milestone in history or in politics.
Searching If a subject does not readily come to mind, review copies of your college, local, and state newspapers or periodicals such as Discover The New Republic, Time, and Newsweek for ideas. You might also think of recent events that have changed your life: moving from a dorm to an apartment, learning to play the banjo, starting a part-time job in the physics lab.
GENERATING THE TEXT
Collecting Once you have a subject in mind, determine what you already know about it and what you need to find out. Collect additional information by reading and talking with classmates about your subject.
Focusing Establish a specific focus or purpose for your writing as well as an effective order for presenting your ideas (either the cause stated first, supported by specific effects, or the effect stated first, supported by specific causes). Write a number of focus or purpose statements and then choose the one that is the most effective or clear.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Develop you first draft according to your planning. Don’t, however, be afraid to follow a new line of thinking if one begins to emerge.
Revising Review, revise, and refine your writing before sharing it with others. (Make sure each paragraph or main point supports your focus.)
EVALUATING Has the cause/effect relationship been effectively addressed? Does the writing contain an effective opening and closing? Has sufficient supporting detail been included?
IDEAS FOR LITERARY ANALYSES
The ideas listed below will help you choose a specific focus for your analysis.
THEME: You can write about one of the themes presented in your selection.
Does the author seem to say something about ambition, courage, greed, jealousy, or happiness?
Does the selection show you what it is like to experience racism, loneliness, etc.?
Does the author say something about a specific time and place in history?
CHARACTERIZATION AND PLOTS: You can explore aspects of character and plot development.
What movies determine a character’s course of action?
What are the most revealing aspects of one of the characters (Consider his or her thoughts, words, and actions.)
What external conflicts affect the main character? (Consider conflicts with other characteristics, the setting, objects, etc.)
What internal conflicts make life difficult for the main characters? (Consider the thoughts, words, and actions.)
How is suspense built into the story? (Consider the important events leading up to the climax.)
Are there any twists or reversals in the plot? (What do they add to the story?)
Does the text exhibit traits of a quest, a comedy, a tragedy, or an ironic twist on one of these patterns of development?
SETTING: You may want to analyze the role of the setting in the story.
What effect does the setting have on the characters? The plot? The theme?
Has the setting increased your knowledge of a specific time and place?
Is the setting new and thought provoking?
STYLE: You can give special attention to the author’s style of writing.
What feeling or tone is created in the selection? How is it created?
Is there an important symbol that adds meaning to the selection? (How is this symbol represented in different parts?)
Has special attention been given to figures of speech like metaphors, similes, and personification? (What do these devices add to the writing?)
AUTHOR: You can focus on the life and times of the author.
How does the text reflect aspects of the author’s experience and beliefs?
How does this text compare to other works by the author?
How does the literary work represent the author’s particular time, place, and/or culture?
WRITING A REPORT
Reports explore timely subjects – people, places, and events. It is the type of writing you find in all current magazines, addressing the needs and interests of various audiences. The best report writing contains interesting ideas plus personality; it is informative and pleasing to read. At the heart of an effective report are a writer’s genuine curiosity about a subject and sincere commitment to present his or her findings in a professional manner.
All report writing shares the following characteristics:
STARTNG POINT: Report writing begins with your interest in a particular person, place, or event.
PURPOSE: The purpose is to learn about a subject of current interest. On another level, the purpose is to educate or enlighten your readers.
FORM: Report writing follows a variety of formats. For example, an interview report may be set up in a basic question-and-answer format. An observation report may simply present sensory details as they were observed. A personal research report may be essentially narrative in structure.
AUDIENCE: In most cases, you will be speaking to your writing peers and your instructor, unless, of course, your report is intended for a campus or community publication.
VOICE: Speak to your readers sincerely and honesty about your subject; keep them engaged in your story.
POINT OF VIEW: Use third-person point of view (he, she, they) in reports, unless you have a strong personal attachment to our subject (as in a personal research report). Then use first-person point of view (I).
Insights into Writing
Remember that report writing is the process of looking outward – the process of observing, listening to, experiencing, and learning about the world around you. Your ability to write effective reports depends on your willingness to gather a lot of information. As writer Donald Murray states, “Readers hunger for specific information. The more concrete and detailed the information, the more it will interest the readers.”
Writing a Summary Report
A summary report highlighting the main points in a longer text (usually an article or a chapter). To prepare a summary report, you need to ask three questions: What is the main point in the text? What are the most compelling or important features in the selection? Use the guidelines below and the model that follows to help you write a report.
SEARCHNG AND SELECTING
Searching In most cases, your instructor will either assign a text for you to summarize or ask you to find an article related to a particular topic.
Selecting To find your own article, check indexes in your library (like the Readers’ Guide to Periodical literature), the on-line catalog, the Internet, and so on. Skim a number of articles that seem interesting and fir the assignment before you make your choice.
GENERATING THE TEXT
Noting Carefully read through the article, paying special attention to the key ideas and important supporting detail. Take notes on this information.
Assessing Review your article and your notes. Did you identify the important information? And do you fully understand the main point of the text?
Focusing If necessary, skim the article once more. Then plan your summary. Decide what you want to say first, second, third, etc. Organize your ideas in a brief outline.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Write your first draft, using your planning and organizing as your. Your opening sentence or paragraph should
Revising Ask yourself these questions when you review your first draft: Does the summary stick to the author’s main points? Is my summary complete? Are the ideas clearly stated? Revise and refine accordingly.
EVALLUATING Does the summary report display a clear understanding of the text? Has the text been effectively reduced to “summary” size? Does the summary move smoothly from point to point?
WRITING AN INTERVIEW REPORT
Writer William Zinsser states, “Nothing so animates writing as someone telling what he thinks or what he does – in his own words.” Zinsser is referring here to one here to one of his favorite forms of writing, the interview report. This form of writing, of course, is based the information you gather while interviewing a particular individual. You are, in effect, sharing another person’s story. The success of an interview report depends upon your ability to make your subject’s story come alive for readers. Use the guidelines below and the models that follow to help you develop your writing.
SEARCHING AND SELLECTING
Reviewing Your instructor may ask you to interview someone who is knowledgeable in particular field, or who is (or was) involved in a specific event or experience. Otherwise, simply think of individuals you would like to interview. Consider campus officials, community leaders, local personalities, professionals, skilled workers, neighbors, and so on.
GENERATING THE TEXT
Preparing Gather background information about your subject, and generate a list of questions you would like to ask. (Avoid questions that call for “yes” and “no” answers.) Also make arrangements to meet with your subject.
Recording Take abbreviated notes during the interview. If your subject agrees, also consider recording the interview. As soon as possible after the interview, write out (or keyboard in) your notes, filling in any gabs as you go along.
Assessing Review your notes (and recording) to determine how you want to shape your report. Present your findings in a basic report, introducing your subject and highlighting important points shared by him or her, or write an as-it –happened questions-and-answer script. Plan accordingly.
WRITING AND REVISING
Writing Develop your report according to your planning and organizing. Make sure to experiment with other offerings.
Revising As you review your first draft, pay special attention to the quotations: Are they clear and complete? Also have your subject review the draft to make sure that all quotations are accurate.
EVALUATING Does the report read clearly and smoothly from the opening idea to the closing thought? Are the quotations carefully integrated? Does the report contain interesting information?
MASTERING THE COLLEGE ESSAY
CHARACTERISTICS: Basically, a paragraph is a unit of thought – a group of related sentences. The paragraph…
Is organized around one controlling idea that is usually stated in a topic sentence.
Is made up of supporting sentences that develop this main idea.
Rarely stands by itself – usually it is used with other paragraphs to build a longer piece of writing.
Can be designed for specific function like opening a piece of writing, closing it, telling a story, describing something, building an argument, and so on.
EVALUATING: To decide whether your paragraph is a viable unit of thought, ask these questions…
What is the topic or controlling idea?
Is the topic clearly stated?
Do all phrases and sentence relate to the topic, or do some go off in a different direction?
Is the paragraph coherent – do linking and transitional words show how various elements are related?
Is the organization clear – the line of thoughts reasonable and understandable?
Is the organization effective – utilizing the best method of arranging the details?
Is the paragraph complete – having enough of the best details to support the topic sentence?
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS: To decide whether your paragraphs work together, ask these questions…
Does the opening paragraph introduce the topic?
Do the opening paragraphs establish the thesis or primary argument of the paper?
Does each paragraph logically follow the thesis or primary argument of the paper?
Does each paragraph logically follow the one that precedes it and lead into the one that follow it?
Does the overall organization of paragraphs build toward the conclusion of the paper in a way that’s clear and logical?
MASTERING THE COLLEGE ESSAY
According to award-winning essayist Lee Gutkind, essay writing is essentially the process of researching, reading, reflecting, and, of course, writing. Essayinst immerse themselves in their work, researching a subject from every conceivable angle. Their research usually begins with reading, not only to learn about their subject, but also to see what has already been written about it. They reflect upon their work as it develops – asking questions, forming new understanding, and so on. And they carefully craft their writing through as many drafts and revisions as needed. You may not have time to immerse yourself so completely in all of your college writing. But you can approach each other new writing task with as much curiosity and diligence as time permits. If you keep on your side, you’ll write effective essays.
